Psyche (mythology)

For other uses, see Psyche (disambiguation).
Psyche
Wife of Cupid
Psyche Abandoned by Pietro Tenerani
AbodeMount Olympus
SymbolButterfly wings
Genealogy
ParentsUnnamed king and queen
SpouseCupid
ChildrenVoluptas

In classical mythology, Psyche (/ˈsaɪkiː/;[1] Greek: Ψυχή, romanized: Psykhḗ Ancient Greek: [psyːkʰɛ̌ː]; Greek pronunciation: [psiˈçi]) is the immortal wife of Cupid, Roman god of erotic love and desire. She is often represented as a beautiful woman with butterfly wings.

Psyche is known from the ancient Roman proto-novel The Golden Ass (also known as the Metamorphoses), written by philosopher and orator Apuleius in the 2nd century.[2] In the story, when Psyche violates the trust of her new husband, Cupid, she must endure multiple trials at the hand of his mother, Venus, to win him back. At the conclusion of her trials, the couple is reconciled and married, and Psyche is made immortal. Though The Golden Ass is the only known version of Psyche's story from antiquity, the cultural influences of the narrative are depicted in art dating back to the 4th century BCE.

Name

Psyche (Ψυχή) has Greek origins, and is commonly translated as "soul," "life," and "spirit."[3] Homer's usage of the word is often translated as "ghost" (psukhê) and is used to refer to the departed souls that Odysseus meets in the Odyssey.[4] It can also be translated as "butterfly" or "moth" (psukhai).[5] Its relationship with the word psȳ́chein ("to blow," "to breathe," "life-breath") is disputed, and it is unknown if psyche is a derivative.[6][3]

The Golden Ass

The Golden Ass was written in Latin in the 2nd century CE by Apuleius.[7] The story follows its protagonist, Lucius, who is accidentally transformed into a donkey after experimenting with magic. Along his journey, he is told multiple stories, one of which is the Cupid and Psyche episode, spanning Books 4-6. While the exact origin of this story is unclear, it was likely borrowed from a now-lost Greek work. Potential sources and inspirations have been named as Lucian,[8] Lucius of Patrae,[2] Aristides,[9] or another unknown author.[10]

Mythology

Psyche with butterfly wings mounted on a camel, marble relief at the Louvre

In an unnamed kingdom, a king and queen had three daughters. While all three were beautiful, the youngest, Psyche, possessed a supernatural beauty. As word of her appearance began to spread, huge numbers of people began to arrive in the city to look upon her; some even began to worship her as the goddess Venus or a new earthly version of her. Worshippers began to neglect Venus' temples, offerings, and rites, opting to visit Psyche instead.[11] The goddess was enraged that a mortal was being worshipped over her, and decided to take revenge upon the girl.[12]: 59–60  Venus called upon her son, Cupid, god of desire. Cupid could make anyone fall in love with the prick of his arrow, and she instructed him to shoot Psyche and make her fall in love with a hideous and impoverished man.[13]

Marriage to Cupid

However, Psyche felt miserable and isolated due to her beauty, and was still unmarried even though her less beautiful sisters had already made advantageous marriages. Psyche's father decided to consult the oracle of Apollo at Miletus, and received a prophesy that Psyche would marry a terrible serpentine monster that even Jupiter would fear, and that she was to be placed on a mountain in funeral attire to carry out the ceremony.[14] Terrified, Psyche's father obeyed, and she was abandoned on the mountaintop. Zephyrus, the western wind, picks her up and brings her to a meadow in the valley below to meet her new spouse.[12]: 60–62  In some retellings, Cupid is there, only invisible.[15]

Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss, marble sculpture by Antonio Canova

When Psyche explores her surroundings, she finds and enters a beautifully crafted home with bejeweled mosaic floors, carved citron-wood and ivory ceilings supported by gold columns, and silver walls embossed with depictions of animals. A disembodied voice suddenly speaks and informs her that all the treasures in the home are hers, and that she will be cared for by invisible attendants. She is treated to a feast that serves itself and is entertained by an invisible choir and lyre player. That night, when she went to bed, her husband finally arrived. However, he did not greet her. Instead, he took her virginity and left before sunrise without letting her see him.[12]: 63–64  After many weeks of this arrangement, Psyche fell pregnant.

Later, Psyche's sisters learned of what had happened to their sister, they wished to find her and decided to travel to the mountain where the ritual had taken place. Cupid learned of this, and he spoke to Psyche saying: "your sisters, believing you to be dead, are now in their grief following you to the mountain-top and will soon be there. If you should hear their lamentations, do not answer or even look that way, or you will bring about heavy grief for me and for yourself sheer destruction."[12]: 64  Psyche promised to follow his orders, but became depressed and inconsolable, refusing to bathe or eat. Cupid was distressed by his wife's condition. Swayed by her pleading, told her that she could see her sisters, but once again warned that their meeting could lead to her ruin, and told her that she could not disclose to her sisters the nature of their relationship, nor be encouraged by them to try and discover his identity. Psyche agreed, and Cupid had Zephyr bring her sisters to the house.[16]

The Abduction of Psyche, painting by Émile Signol

When her sisters arrived, Psyche treated them to the same luxuries she enjoyed when she first arrived. They were amazed by the splendor, and began to envy their sister's position. They asked questions about her husband, and she claimed that he was a young man who spent most of his time hunting and farming. After the sisters left, their envy began to transform to rage; they believed that their sister was undeserving of such a luxurious life, ones that they themselves had been denied in their loveless marriages. They resolved to punish her. However, Cupid was aware of their plots and once again warned Psyche that they would try to persuade her to look upon his face, and told her that if she divulged his secret, their child would be born mortal, but if she did not, he would be born as divine. At their third visit, her sisters reminded Psyche of the oracle's words, and convinced her that Cupid was likely a monster that would eventually destroy her.[12]: 64–71 They instructed her that, while he was sleeping, she should use an oil lamp to look upon his face, then take a blade and cut off his head.[17]

Psyche, although doubtful, was eventually swayed by her sisters' words and looked upon Cupid while he was sleeping. As Psyche shone the light on her husband's face, she realized that he was a god and reprimanded herself for her foolishness. However, as she shifted, a small drop of hot oil fell onto Cupid' shoulder, awakening him. Betrayed by his wife's actions, Cupid took off in flight to take refuge at his mother's house and treat his wound.[12]: 72–74 [18] When Venus discovered that her son had taken Psyche as a lover, she was enraged and vowed to take revenge on her once more.[12]: 75–77 

When Cupid left, the palace disappeared and Psyche found herself in a field near to where her sisters lived. Distraught, Psyche told her sisters of what happened, and they pretended to feel sorry for her. Instead, they were plotting to convince Cupid to take one of them to be his wife. The two traveled to the peak and jumped, thinking Zephyrus would catch them and take them to the palace as he did the last time. Zephyrus, however, knowing what was truly in their hearts, ignored them and the two sisters fell to their deaths.[12]: 75 

Distraught and lost, Psyche began to wander across the countryside in search of her lover. She first arrived at the temple of Ceres, and deciding that she should not neglect the worship of any god during her search, organized and cleaned the temple, then prayed to the goddess. Ceres took pity upon Psyche. She appeared to her and informed her of Venus' rage, but was unable to help her in fear of angering Venus. Psyche then left and wandered to a temple of Juno, where she received a similar response: Juno could not help her and betray Venus. Psyche then decided that she needed to find a way to repent before Venus herself.[12]: 78–80 [19]

When Psyche arrived at Venus' home, she was met by the goddess' handmaid, Habit, who seized her by the hair and dragged her in front of the goddess. Venus was ecstatic, and called her handmaids Care[note 1] and Sorrow to beat and torture Psyche, after which Venus began to beat Psyche herself, tearing off her clothes and threatening to kill her unborn child.[20] After this, Venus told Psyche that, if she wanted to earn the trust of her son again, then she would need to become her slave and prove her merit by completing impossible tasks.[12]: 81–82 

Hermes and Psyche in the Palais Garnier at Paris. Above Psyche's head is a butterfly. Their names are in Greek, ΨΥΧΗ (Psyche) and ΕΡΜΗΣ (Hermes).

Psyche's trials

Sorting grain

Venus presented Psyche with a large heap of mixed grains and instructed her to separate and sort them by the time Venus returned from a wedding party that evening. Psyche broke down in despair. However, when an ant saw her in distress and realized the impossibility of the task she had been given, it took pity upon her. It rallied other ants, and, working together, they were able to successfully sort all of the grains before Venus returned. When the goddess saw that Psyche had completed the trial successfully, she was infuriated. She threw the girl a piece of coarse bread and then went to bed, leaving Psyche alone once more.[12]: 82 [21]

Golden fleece

When Venus awoke the next morning, she gave Psyche a new task. She showed the girl a forest and a winding river where rams with golden fleece grazed, and instructed her to retrieve some of their wool.[22] Psyche obeyed, and made her way to the river where she secretly planned to drown herself and end her suffering.[23] However, as she was standing on the riverbank, a divine voice spoke to her from a reed and told her not to go through with her plans. It then informed her that she needed to wait until after the heat of the day passed to retrieve the fleece, as the rams would be enraged by the heat, but would calm down as the weather cooled. Once they were more docile, she could then go to the forest and retrieve some of the wool that had gotten caught on the branches. Psyche obeyed the voice, and was able to collect a heap of wool to present to the goddess.[12]: 82–83 

Waters of the Styx

Once that task had been completed, Venus gave Psyche her third task: to gather the black waters from the River Styx in a crystal cup. However, the Styx ran from the top of a mountain cliff that was far too dangerous and difficult for Psyche to climb, and the River itself called out to her, telling her to turn away.[24] One of Jupiter's eagles spotted Psyche and took pity; he took the cup from the girl and collected some of the River's waters for her, thus successfully completing the third task.[12]: 83–84 

Journey to the Underworld

Psyche and Persephone, relief by Hermann Heidel.

Aware that Psyche had been getting help from unknown sources, Venus devised a new task even more difficult than those before. She gave Psyche a box and ordered her to travel to the Orcus, the underworld, to retrieve a piece of beauty from Proserpina, the goddess of spring and queen of the underworld.[25] Psyche, believing that this task was impossible, once again decided to take her own life. She climbed a tall tower and prepared to jump, but the tower spoke and instructed Psyche to go to the border of Sparta where she could find a passageway to the underworld.[26] It then instructed her to carry with her two barley cakes soaked with honey and wine, and place two coins in her mouth; the cakes would be fed to Cerberus so that she could pass by without harm, and the coins would be used to pay for Charon's ferry. It also warned her to not to engage with any of the spirits that she may meet, nor open the box under any circumstances.[27] Psyche followed his orders, and upon arriving, Proserpina welcomed Psyche and willing filled the box with her beauty.[12]: 84–86 

As Psyche exited the underworld, she became curious and decided to take a bit of beauty from the box for herself, believing it might please Cupid.[28] However, instead of beauty, the box contained a black cloud that put her into a deep sleep.[12]: 87 

The marriage of Psyche and Cupid

Around this time, Cupid had fully healed from his injury and took flight to find his love. When he found Psyche, he cleared the cloud of sleep from her body and gently pricked her with an arrow to wake her, saying: "You see how yet again curiosity has been your undoing. But meanwhile you must complete the mission assigned you by my mother with all diligence; the rest I will see to."[12]: 87  Psyche obeyed and brought the box to Venus.

Meanwhile, Cupid flew to Jupiter plead his case. Jupiter agreed to help Cupid in exchange for Cupid’s services the next time a beautiful maiden caught his eye, and a deal was made. Zeus arranged an assembly, sending Mercury, the messenger god, to gather the gods together. At this assembly, Zeus warned Venus not to ever bring harm to Psyche again before handing the girl the drink of the gods, ambrosia, which granted her immortality and made the pair equal in the eyes of the gods.[29] Afterward, Psyche and Cupid were married and a large celebration and feast commenced. Later, Psyche bore a daughter: Voluptas, the personification of pleasure.[12]: 87–88 

Interpretations

Many interpretations have been made on the story of Cupid and Psyche, among them on the connections between love, trials, and the soul. According to the writer Fulgentius, the story could be read through a Christian lens in which Psyche is compared to Adam because both had curiosities that led them to be banished from paradise.[21] The Italian poet Giovanni Boccaccio proposed that the marriage between Psyche and Cupid could be seen as the bond between the soul and God. Thomas Bullfinch wrote that the soul can be compared to a butterfly, in that the soul can be purified through trials and tribulations, just like a butterfly bursting from its cocoon. Other scholars believe it could be seen as an allegory for the soul’s journey for love, while some believe that just like butterflies, the human soul endures pain and change and can still have a happy ending.[30]

Gnostic narrative

Psyche is featured in the creation myth found in the ancient Gnostic text known as On the Origin of the World. Here she appears as a lover of Eros who pours her blood upon him and also upon the Earth, which causes the first rose to grow from a thorn bush.[31]

References in art and literature

Relief of Psyche on a sarcophagus lid from Tyre, Lebanon.

Literature

  • "Love in Color" by Bolu Babalola is a collection of works that features a story about Psyche and Eros.
  • "The Fable Of The Goddess Psyche And Cupid" by Lucius Apuleius translated by T. Taylor 2023.
  • "Till We Have Faces" by C.S. Lewis is not focused on Psyche but instead her sister Orual, giving a different view point of Psyche in myth.
  • "Cupid: A Tale of Love and Desire" by Julius Lester is centered around Cupid in this romantic, light retelling.
  • "The Earthly Paradise" by William Morris is an 1868 poem retelling the story of Psyche and Cupid and other myths.
  • "Ode to Psyche" poem by John Keats in 1819 in which the narrator shares his plans to resurrect Psyche.
  • Psyche In A Dress by Francesca Lia Block was published in 2006 as a contemporary retelling of the Psyche myth in poetic prose.

Paintings, sculptures, and engravings

Other references

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Alternatively translated as 'Sadness'

References

  1. ^ Oxford dictionary
  2. ^ a b "The Golden Ass | Roman Novel, Satire, Lucius | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2024-04-29.
  3. ^ a b Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott. "A Greek-English Lexicon, ψυ_χ-ή". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2025-06-28.
  4. ^ Homer, Odyssey, 11. "The first ghost [psukhê] that came was that of my comrade Elpenor, for he had not yet been laid beneath the earth."
  5. ^ "Definition of PSYCHE". www.merriam-webster.com. 2025-06-21. Retrieved 2025-06-28.
  6. ^ "Dictionary.com | Definition of Psyche". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 2025-06-28.
  7. ^ Fleischmann, T. "Cupid and Psyche". www.ebsco.com. Retrieved 2025-07-01.
  8. ^ Harrison, S. J. (2004) [2000]. Apuleius: A Latin Sophist (paperback ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 9–10. ISBN 978-0-19-927138-2.
  9. ^ Graverini, Luca (2012). "Chapter One: A Sweet Poetics". Literature and Identity in the Golden Ass of Apuleius. Benjamin Todd Lee. Columbus: Ohio State University Press. pp. 47–49. ISBN 978-0-8142-7026-4.
  10. ^ Apuleius; Kenney, E. J. (1998). "Introduction, Section 4". The Golden Ass, or, Metamorphoses (PDF). Penguin classics. London ; New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-043590-0.
  11. ^ Apuleius; Adlington. "22". The Golden Asse. Project Gutenberg. Her ornaments were throwne out, her temples defaced, her pillowes and cushions torne, her ceremonies neglected, her images and Statues uncrowned, and her bare altars unswept, and fowl with the ashes of old burnt sacrifice.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Apuleius; Kenney, E. J. (1998). The Golden Ass, or, Metamorphoses (PDF). Penguin classics. London ; New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-043590-0.
  13. ^ Apuleius; Adlington. "22". The Golden Asse. Project Gutenberg. I pray thee, that without delay shee may fall in love with the most miserablest creature living, the most poore, the most crooked, and the most vile, that there may bee none found in all the world of like wretchednesse.
  14. ^ Apuleius; Adlington. "22". The Golden Asse. Project Gutenberg. "Let Psyches corps be clad in mourning weed, / And set on rock of yonder hill aloft: / Her husband is no wight of humane seed, / But Serpent dire and fierce as might be thought. / Who flies with wings above in starry skies, / And doth subdue each thing with firie flight. / The gods themselves, and powers that seem so wise, / With mighty Jove, be subject to his might, / The rivers blacke, and deadly flouds of paine / And darkness eke, as thrall to him remaine."
  15. ^ Ruck, Carl A.P. (2017). "The new Aphrodite". Sexus Journal. 1 (4): 5 – via BU Open Access Articles.
  16. ^ Apuleius; Adlington. "22". The Golden Asse. Project Gutenberg. "But he gave her a further charge saying, Beware that ye covet not (being mooved by the pernicious counsell of you sisters) to see the shape of my person, lest by your curiosity you deprive your selfe of so great and worthy estate. Psyches being glad herewith, rendered unto him most entire thankes, and said, 'Sweet husband, I had rather die than to bee separated from you, for whosoever you bee, I love and retaine you within my heart, as if you were myne owne spirit or Cupid himselfe: but I pray you grant this likewise, that you would commaund your servant Zephyrus to bring my sisters downe into the valley as he brought mee.'"
  17. ^ Edwards, M. J. (1992). "The Tale of Cupid and Psyche". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. 94: 77–94. ISSN 0084-5388. JSTOR 20188784.
  18. ^ Apuleius; Adlington. "22". The Golden Asse. Project Gutenberg. "But alas while shee was in this great joy, whether it were for envy for desire to touch this amiable body likewise, there fell out a droppe of burning oyle from the lampe upon the right shoulder of the god."
  19. ^ Apuleius; Adlington. "22". The Golden Asse. Project Gutenberg. "Thus being in doubt, poore Psyches prepared her selfe to her owne danger, and devised how she might make her orison and prayer unto Venus."
  20. ^ Apuleius; Adlington. "22". The Golden Asse. Project Gutenberg. "...Behold she thinketh (that by reason of her great belly, which she hath gotten by playing the whore) to move me to pitty... since as the marriage was made betweene unequall persons, in the field without witnesses, and not by the consent of parents, wherefore the marriage is illegitimate, and the childe (that shall be borne) a bastard; if we fortune to suffer thee to live so long till thou be delivered. When Venus had spoken these words she leaped upon the face of poore Psyches, and (tearing her apparell) tooke her by the haire, and dashed her head upon the ground."
  21. ^ a b c d Mark, Harrison W. "Psyche". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2023-04-16.
  22. ^ Apuleius; Adlington. "22". The Golden Asse. Project Gutenberg. "When night was passed Venus called Psyches, and said, Seest thou yonder Forest that extendeth out in length with the river? there be great sheepe shining like gold, and kept by no manner of person. I command thee that thou go thither and bring me home some of the wooll of their fleeces."
  23. ^ Apuleius; Adlington. "22". The Golden Asse. Project Gutenberg. "Then a green reed inspired by divine inspiration, with a gratious tune and melody gan say, O Psyches I pray thee not to trouble or pollute my water by the death of thee..."
  24. ^ Apuleius; Adlington. "22". The Golden Asse. Project Gutenberg. "...The waters seemed to themselves likewise saying, Away; away, what wilt thou doe? flie, flie, or else thou wilt be slaine."
  25. ^ Apuleius; Adlington. "22". The Golden Asse. Project Gutenberg. "Take this box and to Hell to Proserpina, and desire her to send me a little of her beauty, as much as will serve me the space of one day, and say that such as I had is consumed away since my sonne fell sicke, but returne againe quickly, for I must dresse my selfe therewithall, and goe to the Theatre of the Gods..."
  26. ^ a b Lary, Morris H. (2022-09-08). "Psyche: Greek Goddess of the Human Soul | History Cooperative". Retrieved 2023-04-16.
  27. ^ Apuleius; Adlington. "22". The Golden Asse. Project Gutenberg. "...But above all things have a regard that thou looke not in the boxe, neither be not too curious about the treasure of the divine beauty."
  28. ^ Apuleius; Adlington. "22". The Golden Asse. Project Gutenberg. "When Psyches was returned from hell, to the light of the world, shee was ravished with great desire, saying, Am not I a foole, that knowing that I carrie here the divine beauty, will not take a little thereof to garnish my face, to please my love withall?"
  29. ^ Apuleius; Adlington. "22". The Golden Asse. Project Gutenberg. "Then he returned to Venus, and said, 'And you my daughter, take you no care, neither feare the dishonour of your progeny and estate, neither have regard in that it is a mortall marriage, for it seemeth unto me just, lawfull, and legitimate by the law civill.' [...] And then he tooke a pot of immortality, and said, 'Hold Psyches, and drinke, to the end thou maist be immortall, and that Cupid may be thine everlasting husband.'"
  30. ^ "Psyche - Goddess of the Soul • Facts and Information on the God Psyche - Goddess of the Soul". Greek Gods & Goddesses. Retrieved 2023-03-20.
  31. ^ Robinson, James M. (2007) [1st publ. 1978]. "On the Origin of the World". The Nag Hammadi Scriptures. HarperCollins. ISBN 9780060523787.

Further reading

  • Benson, Geoffrey C. (2018). "Cupid and Psyche and the Illumination of the Unseen". In Cueva, Edmund; Harrison, Stephen; Mason, Hugh; Owens, William; Schwartz, Saundra (eds.). Re-Wiring The Ancient Novel. Vol. 24. Barkhuis. pp. 85–116. ISBN 978-94-92444-56-1. JSTOR j.ctvggx289.30.
  • Dowden, Ken (1982). "Psyche on the Rock". Latomus. 41 (2): 336–352. JSTOR 41532497.
  • Edwards, Lee R. (1979). "The Labors of Psyche: Toward a Theory of Female Heroism". Critical Inquiry. 6 (1): 33–49. doi:10.1086/448026. JSTOR 1343084. S2CID 162110603.
  • Gagné, Laurie Brands (2000). "Lnanna, Demeter, and Psyche". The Uses of Darkness: Women's Underworld Journeys, Ancient and Modern. University of Notre Dame Press. pp. 23–62. doi:10.2307/j.ctvpj7c20.5. ISBN 978-0-268-15958-0. JSTOR j.ctvpj7c20.5.
  • Haskins, Susan L. (2014). "A Gendered Reading for the Character of Psyche in Apuleius' 'Metamorphoses'". Mnemosyne. 67 (2): 247–269. doi:10.1163/1568525X-12341201. hdl:2263/39814. JSTOR 24521701.
  • Katz, Phyllis B. (1976). "The Myth of Psyche: A Definition of the Nature of the Feminine?". Arethusa. 9 (1): 111–118. JSTOR 26307539. ProQuest 1307034369.
  • Makowski, John F. (1985). "Persephone, Psyche, and the Mother-Maiden Archetype". The Classical Outlook. 62 (3): 73–78. JSTOR 43934919.
  • McCreight, Thomas (2006). "Psyche's Sisters as Medicae?: Allusions to Medicine in Cupid and Psyche". In Keulen, W.H.; Nauta, R.R.; Panayotakis, S. (eds.). Lectiones Scrupulosae: Essays on the Text and Interpretation of Apuleius' Metamorphoses in Honour of Maaike Zimmerman. Vol. 6. Barkhuis. pp. 123–167. ISBN 978-90-77922-16-3. JSTOR j.ctt13wwxg3.14.
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